Consumption of Non-Prescribed Drugs in Portugal During the Pandemic in 2021.

Objectives: Portugal liberalised the over-the-counter drugs market in 2005 and provides universal healthcare coverage in a mainly Beveridge-type health system. However, the COVID-19 pandemic has forced healthcare to change how services were delivered, especially increasing remote consultations in primary care. This analysis aims to find the drivers for taking non-prescribed drugs during the pandemic in Portugal. Specifically, it seeks to understand the role of taking prescribed drugs and attending remote medical appointments in the self-medication decision. Methods: In this observational study, we used data collected during the pandemic in Centre Region of Portugal and estimated logistic regression for the whole sample and stratified by sex. Results: The main findings show that people taking prescribed medications and attending a remote consultation are more likely to take non-prescribed drugs. Also, reporting unmet healthcare needs seems to motivate people to choose self-medication. Conclusion: Policy implications are pointed out concerning the health risks raised from self-medication, the role of the pharmacist advising non-prescribed drugs, and the related health risks arising from unmet healthcare needs.

Picturing Prevalence and Inequalities in Cancer Screening Attendance to Population-Based Programs in Portugal.

INTRODUCTION: Screening is effective in reducing cancer-related morbidity and mortality. The aim of this study was to analyze the level of, and income-related inequalities in, screening attendance, in Portugal for population-based screening programs. METHODS: Data from the Portuguese Health Interview Survey 2019 was used. Variables included in the analysis were self-reported: mammography, pap smear test, fecal occult blood test. Prevalence and concentration indices were computed at national/regional level. We analyzed: up-to-date screening (within recommended age/interval), under-screening (never or overdue screening), and over-screening (due to frequency higher than recommended or screening outside target group). RESULTS: Up-to-date screening rates were 81.1%, 72%, and 40%, for breast, cervical and colorectal cancer, respectively. Never-screening was 3.4%, 15.7%, and 39.9%, for breast, cervical, and colorectal cancer, respectively. Over-screening related with frequency was highest for cervical cancer; in breast cancer, over-screening was observed outside recommended age, affecting one third of younger women and one fourth of older women. In these cancers, over-screening was concentrated among women with higher income. Never-screening was concentrated among individuals with lower income for cervical cancer and higher income for colorectal cancer. Beyond the recommended age, 50% of individuals never underwent screening for colorectal cancer and 41% of women never underwent screening for cervical cancer. CONCLUSION: Overall, screening attendance was high, and inequalities were low in the case of breast cancer screening. The priority for colorectal cancer should be to increase screening attendance.

Unmet healthcare needs among the population aged 50+ and their association with health outcomes during the COVID-19 pandemic.

The COVID-19 pandemic led to unprecedented levels of subjective unmet healthcare needs (SUN). This study investigates the association between SUN in 2020 and three health outcomes in 2021-mortality, cancer, and self-assessed health (SAH), among adults aged 50 years and older, using data from the regular administration of the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe and from the two special waves administered in 2020 and 2021 regarding COVID-19. Three types of SUN were surveyed: care foregone due to fear of contracting COVID-19, pre-scheduled care postponed, and inability to get medical appointments or treatments demanded. We resort on the relative risk and the logistic specification to investigate the association between SUN and health outcomes. To avoid simultaneity, 1-year lagged SUN variables are used. We found a negative association between SUN and mortality. This result differs from the (scarce) previous evidence, suggesting that health systems prioritised life-threatening conditions, in the pandemic context. In line with previous studies, we obtained a positive association between SUN and worse health, in the case of cancer, though it is statistically significant only for the global measure of SUN (any reason). The higher chances of reporting cancer among those exposed to SUN might mean delayed cancer diagnosis, confirming that healthcare foregone was truly needed for a timely diagnosis. The association between SUN and poor or fair SAH is positive but not statistically significant, for the period analysed.

Disentangling the complexities of modelling when high social capital contributes to indicating good health.

The association between social capital and health is under continuous research. Based both on theoretical frameworks and previous empirical studies, the magnitude and sign of this association are ambiguous. Our main goal is to empirically investigate under which conditions is social capital relevant to obtain good or very good self-rated health, while acknowledging that different paths can lead to this outcome. The data used in this study come from the European Social Survey 2018 (47,423 observations for 29 European countries) and fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis was adopted. Our results show that neither the presence of social capital (as measured in this study - 'Generalised trust' and/or 'Informal social connections'), nor its absence, is a necessary condition for good or very good self-rated health. While not being necessary, there are contexts where social capital is relevant for health and, whenever it is present, it positively contributes to good or very good self-rated health. However, our results further suggest that social capital alone is not sufficient to be healthy. The relevance of social capital is contingent on the presence, or absence, of other conditions. What works for some individuals does not work for others. And for any given individual, rarely there is only one way to be healthy. Additionally, our findings suggest that the impact of belonging to a minority ethnic group on health might be stronger than what has been hitherto recognised.

Access for those who want or for those who can? Equity in the use of doctor's appointments in Portugal based on the HIS 2019. / Acesso para quem quer ou para quem pode? Equidade na utilização de consultas médicas em Portugal com base no INS 2019.

Horizontal equity in the use of healthcare implies equal use for equal needs, regardless of other factors - be they predisposing or enabling (Andersen's model). This study aimed to assess equity in the use of doctor's appointments in Portugal in 2019, comparing the results with those obtained in a previous study, based on data from 2014. Data were retrieved from the Health Interview Survey 2019 (HIS 2019). Healthcare is measured by the number of doctor's appointments. Our study adopted the Negative Binomial Model to assess the factors affecting use. The concentration index was calculated to quantify income-related inequality/inequity. Compared to 2014, the effects of self-assessed health, limitations in daily living activities, and longstanding illnesses are more pronounced, and the region, income, household type and marital status are significant for appointments scheduled with a General Practitioner. In the case of appointments with specialists, health insurance lost statistical significance and the effect of education dropped; however, income became significant. The inequity index is not significant for appointments scheduled with a General Practitioner, as in 2014, but the (significant) value of this index increased for appointments with other specialists.

A equidade horizontal no uso de cuidados de saúde requer igual uso para igual necessidade, independentemente de outros fatores - predisponentes ou de capacitação (modelo de Andersen). O objetivo é avaliar a equidade no uso de consultas médicas em Portugal em 2019, comparando os resultados com os obtidos em estudo anterior, com dados de 2014. Os dados vêm do Inquérito Nacional de Saúde 2019. O uso de cuidados é medido pelo número de consultas. Para avaliar as determinantes da utilização, adota-se o modelo binomial negativo. Para quantificar a desigualdade/iniquidade relacionada com o rendimento, calcula-se o índice de concentração. Face a 2014, os efeitos do estado de saúde autoavaliado, limitação nas atividades diárias e problema de saúde prolongado são mais pronunciados e, a região, rendimento, tipo de agregado e estado civil são significativos, nas consultas de medicina geral e familiar. Nas outras consultas, o seguro perdeu significância estatística e o efeito educação foi atenuado, mas emergiu um efeito rendimento. O índice de iniquidade não é significativo nas consultas de medicina geral e familiar, como em 2014, mas o valor (significativo) desse índice aumentou para as consultas de outras especialidades.

Acesso para quem quer ou para quem pode? Equidade na utilização de consultas médicas em Portugal com base no INS 2019 / Access for those who want or for those who can? Equity in the use of doctor's appointments in Portugal based on the HIS 2019

Resumo A equidade horizontal no uso de cuidados de saúde requer igual uso para igual necessidade, independentemente de outros fatores - predisponentes ou de capacitação (modelo de Andersen). O objetivo é avaliar a equidade no uso de consultas médicas em Portugal em 2019, comparando os resultados com os obtidos em estudo anterior, com dados de 2014. Os dados vêm do Inquérito Nacional de Saúde 2019. O uso de cuidados é medido pelo número de consultas. Para avaliar as determinantes da utilização, adota-se o modelo binomial negativo. Para quantificar a desigualdade/iniquidade relacionada com o rendimento, calcula-se o índice de concentração. Face a 2014, os efeitos do estado de saúde autoavaliado, limitação nas atividades diárias e problema de saúde prolongado são mais pronunciados e, a região, rendimento, tipo de agregado e estado civil são significativos, nas consultas de medicina geral e familiar. Nas outras consultas, o seguro perdeu significância estatística e o efeito educação foi atenuado, mas emergiu um efeito rendimento. O índice de iniquidade não é significativo nas consultas de medicina geral e familiar, como em 2014, mas o valor (significativo) desse índice aumentou para as consultas de outras especialidades.

Abstract Horizontal equity in the use of healthcare implies equal use for equal needs, regardless of other factors - be they predisposing or enabling (Andersen's model). This study aimed to assess equity in the use of doctor's appointments in Portugal in 2019, comparing the results with those obtained in a previous study, based on data from 2014. Data were retrieved from the Health Interview Survey 2019 (HIS 2019). Healthcare is measured by the number of doctor's appointments. Our study adopted the Negative Binomial Model to assess the factors affecting use. The concentration index was calculated to quantify income-related inequality/inequity. Compared to 2014, the effects of self-assessed health, limitations in daily living activities, and longstanding illnesses are more pronounced, and the region, income, household type and marital status are significant for appointments scheduled with a General Practitioner. In the case of appointments with specialists, health insurance lost statistical significance and the effect of education dropped; however, income became significant. The inequity index is not significant for appointments scheduled with a General Practitioner, as in 2014, but the (significant) value of this index increased for appointments with other specialists.

Mirror, mirror on the wall, when are inequalities higher, after all? Analysis of breast and cervical cancer screening in 30 European countries.

Screening for breast and cervical cancer is strongly related with a reduction in cancer mortality but previous evidence has found socioeconomic inequalities in screening. Using up-to-date data from the second wave of the European Health Interview Survey (2013-2015), this study aims to analyse income-related inequalities in mammography screening and Pap smear test in 30 European countries. We propose a framework that combines age group and screening interval, identifying situations of due-, under-, and over-screening. Coverage rates, standard and generalised concentration indices are calculated. Overall, pro-rich inequalities in screening persist though there are varied combinations of prevalence of screening attendance and relative inequality across countries. Bulgaria and particularly Romania stand out with low coverage and high inequality. Some Baltic and Mediterranean countries also present less favourable figures on both accounts. In general, there are not marked differences between mammography and Pap smear test, for the recommended situation ('Due-screening'). 'Extreme under-screening' is concentrated among lower income quintiles in basically all countries analysed, for both screenings. These women, who never screened, are at risk of entering the group of 'Lost opportunity', once they reach the upper-limit age of the target group. At the same time, there are signals of 'Over-screening', within target group, due to screening more frequently than recommended. In several countries, 'Over-screening' seems to be concentrated among richer women. This is not only a waste of resources, but it can also cause harms. The inequalities found in 'Extreme under-screening' and 'Over-screening' raise concerns on whether women are making informed choices.

[The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Unmet Healthcare Needs in People Aged Over 50 in Portugal]. / COVID-19 e Necessidades em Saúde Não Satisfeitas para Indivíduos Com Mais de 50 anos em Portugal.

INTRODUCTION: The COVID-19 pandemic led to the cancellation of healthcare appointments and to lower demand, which generated unmet healthcare needs. The aim of this study was to evaluate their prevalence and distribution in Portugal. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Data came from the "Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe". Between June and August 2020, 1118 Portuguese individuals aged 50 or over were inquired about unmet healthcare needs due to: i) fear of getting infected; ii) cancellation by the doctor/healthcare services; iii) unsuccessful consultation request. The analysis of the prevalence of unmet needs was complemented by the calculation of the concentration indices as a function of the variables: income, education and health status. RESULTS: About 60% of respondents reported at least one unmet need, which was almost twice the European average. Motive ii) cancellation by the doctor/healthcare services was the most frequent. The prevalence of unmet needs differed depending on income level and health status. The indices evidence the concentration of unmet needs in individuals with the worst health status, although for the reason fear of infection the concentration occurred in those with higher levels of income and education. CONCLUSION: Our study showed a high prevalence of unmet needs and their concentration in individuals with worse health status. Given the association between unmet needs and the subsequent deterioration of health, these results should raise concerns about the near future.

Introdução: A pandemia por COVID-19 conduziu ao cancelamento de cuidados de saúde e à diminuição da sua procura resultando em necessidades de cuidados de saúde não satisfeitas. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a sua prevalência e distribuição, em Portugal. Material e Métodos: Os dados provêm do Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe. Foram inquiridos 1118 portugueses com 50 ou mais anos, entre junho e agosto de 2020, sobre necessidades de cuidados de saúde não satisfeitas por: i) receio de ser infetado; ii) cancelamento por parte dos serviços de saúde; iii) solicitação de consulta não atendida. A análise de prevalência de necessidades não satisfeitas foi complementada pelo cálculo de índices de concentração em função das variáveis: rendimento, educação e estado de saúde. Resultados: Cerca de 60% dos inquiridos reportaram pelo menos uma necessidade não satisfeita, quase o dobro da média europeia, sendo o motivo ii) cancelamento por parte dos serviços de saúde o mais frequente. A prevalência de necessidades não satisfeitas diferiu consoante o nível de rendimento e o estado de saúde. Os índices comprovaram a sua concentração nos indivíduos com pior estado de saúde, embora para o motivo Receio a concentração ocorresse nos que têm maior rendimento e nível de educação. Conclusão: O nosso estudo revelou uma elevada prevalência de necessidades de cuidados de saúde não satisfeitas e a sua concentração em indivíduos com pior estado de saúde. Dada a associação entre necessidades não satisfeitas e a subsequente deterioração da saúde, estes resultados constituem um alerta para o futuro próximo.

[Risk Factors Associated with the Refusal of Surgery Vouchers: The Case of Central Portugal]. / Fatores de Risco Associados à Recusa de Notas de Transferência e Vales Cirurgia: O Caso da Região Centro em Portugal.

INTRODUCTION: In Portugal, the rate of refusals regarding transfer between hospitals through surgery vouchers is high, which makes it difficult to meet maximum waiting times for elective surgeries. The objectives of this study are to examine how many vouchers were issued and refused between the third quarter of 2016 and the fourth quarter of 2019 and the risk factors associated with their refusal, in Central Portugal Material and Methods: Data was obtained in the database of cancelled vouchers and the waiting list for surgery on the 31st December 2019. Multiple logistic regression was used to investigate risk factors. RESULTS: The number of issued vouchers increased after 2018 and the rate of refusals has been above 55% since the 3rd quarter of 2018. Refusal was more likely for individuals aged 55 years or above (OR = 1.136; CI = 1.041 - 1.240; OR = 1.095; CI = 1.005 - 1.194; OR = 1.098; CI = 1.002 - 1.203, for the age bands 55 - 64, 65 - 74 and 75 - 84, respectively), for inpatient surgery when compared to ambulatory (OR = 2.498; CI = 2.343 - 2.663) and for Orthopaedics when compared to General Surgery (OR = 1.123; CI = 1.037 - 1.217). The odds of refusal also varied across hospitals (for example OR = 3.853; CI = 3.610 - 4.113; OR = 3.600; CI = 3.171 - 4.087; OR = 2.751; CI =3.383 - 3.175 e OR = 1.337; CI = 1.092 - 1.637, for hospitals identified as HO_2, HO_7, HO_4 and HO_6, respectively). CONCLUSION: In this study, we have confirmed that the number of issued surgery vouchers increased after the administrative reduction of maximum waiting times in 2018 and that the rate of transfer refusals has been increasing since 2016 and has remained above 55% from the third trimester of 2018 onwards. Some of the factors for which we obtained a positive association with refusal are age, inpatient surgery (compared to ambulatory) and Orthopaedics (compared to General Surgery).

Introdução: Em Portugal, a recusa de Notas de Transferência e Vales Cirurgia é elevada, dificultando o cumprimento dos tempos máximos de resposta garantidos para cirurgias eletivas. Os objetivos deste estudo foram analisar a evolução de notas e vales emitidos/recusados para o período compreendido entre o terceiro trimestre de 2016 e o quarto trimestre de 2019 e os fatores de risco associados à sua recusa, na Região Centro, em Portugal.Material e Métodos: Os dados provêm da base de dados de notas/vales cancelados e da lista de inscritos para cirurgia a 31 de dezembro de 2019. Na análise dos fatores de risco recorremos à regressão logística múltipla.Resultados: A emissão de notas/vales aumentou após 2018 e as taxas de recusa de transferência mantiveram-se acima dos 55% a partir do terceiro trimestre de 2018. A chance de recusa foi maior para idades superiores a 55 anos (OR = 1,136; IC = 1,041 ­ 1,240; OR = 1,095; IC = 1,005 ­ 1,194; OR = 1,098; IC = 1,002 ­ 1,203, para as faixas etárias 55 - 64, 65 - 74 e 75 - 84, respetivamente) para a cirurgia convencional, quando comparada com ambulatório (OR = 2,498; IC = 2,343 ­ 2,663) e para a especialidade de Ortopedia, quando comparada com Cirurgia Geral (OR = 1,123; IC = 1,037 ­ 1,217). A chance de recusa variou também entre hospitais (por exemplo OR = 3,853; IC = 3,610 ­ 4,113; OR = 3,600; IC = 3,171 ­ 4,087; OR = 2,751; IC = 3,383 ­ 3,175 e OR = 1,337; IC= 1,092 ­1,637, para os hospitais de origem identificados como HO_2, HO_7, HO_4 e HO_6, respetivamente).Conclusão: Neste estudo confirmou-se que a emissão de notas de transferência/vales cirurgia aumentou após a redução legal dos tempos máximos de resposta garantidos em 2018 e que as taxas de recusa de transferência vinham já a registar uma tendência de aumento desde 2016, tendo-se mantido acima dos 55% a partir do terceiro trimestre de 2018. Alguns fatores para os quais se encontrou uma associação positiva com a recusa são a idade, a cirurgia convencional (em comparação com ambulatório) e a especialidade de Ortopedia (em comparação com Cirurgia Geral).

[Access to healthcare in Portugal in the wake of the crisis. Not everything is money?] / Acesso aos cuidados de saúde em Portugal no rescaldo da crise. Nem tudo é dinheiro?

Unmet healthcare needs have been used to assess access to healthcare. In scenarios of recession and financial constraints on public policies, it is important to identify which factors besides income can be used to mitigate barriers to access. This was the focus of our study on Portugal's case in the wake of the crisis. We used 17,698 observations from the 5th National Health Survey (2014). We analyzed self-reported unmet needs for medical appointments and treatments, dental healthcare, and prescribed medications. We used a bivariate selection model, considering the fact that unmet needs could only be observed in the subsample of individuals that felt the need for healthcare. The risk of unmet needs for healthcare decreased in individuals with higher income and schooling levels and in the elderly and men. Exclusive coverage by the National Health Service increased the risk of unmet dental healthcare needs. The absence of a circle of close friends to whom one can ask for help and lack of trust in others increased the likelihood of unmet healthcare needs. Better health decreased the risk of unmet needs. While income is an important predictor of unmet needs, we found the impact of other factors such as gender, age, and education. Participation in informal groups reduced the likelihood of unmet needs. Individuals with more healthcare needs end up suffering additional risk.

As necessidades de cuidados de saúde não satisfeitas têm sido usadas para avaliar o acesso a cuidados de saúde. Em cenários de recessão e restrições financeiras impostas às políticas públicas, é importante identificar que fatores, para além do rendimento, podem ser usados para mitigar as barreiras no acesso. Este é o objetivo deste artigo, para o caso português, durante o rescaldo da crise. Usaram-se 17.698 observações do 5º Inquérito Nacional de Saúde (2014). Analisaram-se as necessidades não satisfeitas (autorreportadas) para as consultas e tratamentos médicos, cuidados de saúde dentários e medicamentos prescritos. Recorreu-se ao modelo de seleção bivariado, acomodando o fato de as necessidades não satisfeitas apenas poderem ser observadas na subamostra de indivíduos que sentiram necessidade de cuidados de saúde. O risco de necessidades de cuidados de saúde não satisfeitas diminui para rendimentos e níveis de educação mais altos bem como no grupo dos idosos e homens. Beneficiar apenas do Serviço Nacional de Saúde aumenta o risco de necessidades não satisfeitas na saúde oral. A ausência de um círculo de pessoas próximas a quem pedir ajuda e a falta de confiança nos outros tornam mais prováveis as necessidades de cuidados de saúde não satisfeitas. Mais saúde diminui o risco de necessidades de cuidados não satisfeitas. Sendo o rendimento um importante preditor das necessidades não satisfeitas, encontrou-se impacto de outros fatores como sexo, idade e educação. Participar em grupos informais reduz a probabilidade de necessidades não satisfeitas. Aqueles com mais necessidades de cuidados de saúde acabam por sofrer um risco acrescido por essa via.

Las necesidades de cuidados de salud sin satisfacer se han usado para evaluar el acceso a los cuidados de salud. En escenarios de recesión y restricciones financieras, impuestas a las políticas públicas, es importante identificar qué factores, más allá del rendimiento, pueden ser usados para mitigar las barreras en el acceso. Este es nuestro objetivo para el caso portugués tras la crisis. Se realizaron 17.698 observaciones de la 5ª Encuesta Nacional de Salud (2014). Analizamos las necesidades no satisfechas (auto-informadas) en consultas y tratamientos médicos, cuidados dentales de salud y medicamentos prescritos. Recurrimos al modelo de selección bivariado, ajustando el hecho de que las necesidades no satisfechas solamente podrían ser observadas en la submuestra de individuos que sintieron la necesidad de cuidados de salud. El riesgo de necesidades de cuidados de salud no satisfechas disminuye en el caso de las rentas y niveles de educación más altos, así como en el grupo de los ancianos y hombres. Beneficiar solamente el Servicio Nacional de Salud aumenta el riesgo de necesidades no satisfechas en la salud oral. La ausencia de un círculo de personas cercanas a quién pedir ayuda y la falta de confianza en los otros hacen más probables las necesidades de cuidados de salud no satisfechos. Más salud disminuye el riesgo de necesidades de cuidados no satisfechos. Siendo el rendimiento un importante predictor de las necesidades no satisfechas, encontramos impacto de otros factores como sexo, edad y educación. Participar en grupos informales reduce la probabilidad de necesidades no satisfechas. Aquellos con más necesidades de cuidados de salud acaban por sufrir un riesgo más grande por esta vía.

[Equity in Usage of Medical Appointments in Portugal: In Sickness and in Health, in Poverty and in Wealth?] / Equidade na Utilização de Consultas Médicas em Portugal: Na saúde e na Doença, na Riqueza e na Pobreza?

INTRODUCTION: Equity is a central goal of health policy in Portugal. However, empirical evidence regarding healthcare usage is scarce and there is a lack of up-to-date results. Our objective is to evaluate whether the principle of equal utilisation for equal need has been met. MATERIAL AND METHODS: We use data from the National Health Survey 2014. Healthcare usage is measured by the number of visits to a Family Physician or to a hospital-based specialist. To assess the factors affecting usage we adopted a multivariate regression analysis (Negative Binomial Model). To quantify income-related inequality/inequity in utilisation we computed the concentration index. RESULTS: Better self-assessed health and absence of limitations in daily activities decrease usage; suffering from chronic disease increases usage. Income is not statistically significant; education positively affects usage with a pronounced effect. Living in urban areas increases usage as well as living in Lisbon (compared to North). Living in Algarve or Madeira, or benefiting only from the National Health Service coverage negatively affects usage. The possibility for equity in Family Physician visits cannot be discarded. Regarding hospital based specialist and total visits, the evidence suggests the existence of pro-rich inequity. DISCUSSION: The observed income-related inequity seems to reflect inequalities in other non-need variables. Whether the results are affected by overuse, in the case of hospital based specialist visits, is an issue open to question. CONCLUSION: Portugal evolved favourably in terms of equity in healthcare usage but several challenges remain.

Introdução: A equidade é um objetivo central da política de saúde em Portugal. Contudo, a evidência empírica sobre utilização de cuidados é escassa não existindo resultados atualizados. O nosso objetivo é avaliar o respeito pelo princípio de igual utilização para igual necessidade.Material e Métodos: Usamos dados do Inquérito Nacional de Saúde 2014. A utilização de cuidados é medida pelo número de consultas de medicina geral e familiar ou de especialidades hospitalares. Para avaliar os fatores impactantes na utilização recorremos à análise de regressão multivariada (modelo binomial negativo). Para quantificar a desigualdade/iniquidade relacionada com o rendimento na utilização calcula-se o índice de concentração.Resultados: Ter melhor saúde autoavaliada e não sofrer de limitações nas atividades diárias reduz a utilização; sofrer de doença crónica aumenta o uso. O rendimento não é estatisticamente significativo; a educação aumenta o uso, com efeito pronunciado. Viver em zonas urbanas e em Lisboa (comparado com o Norte) aumenta a utilização. Residir no Algarve ou Madeira, ou beneficiar apenas do Serviço Nacional de Saúde está associado a menos utilização. Pelo índice de concentração, não se exclui a hipótese de equidade nas consultas de medicina geral e familiar. Em relação às consultas de especialidades hospitalares e totais, a evidência sugere iniquidade favorável aos mais ricos.Discussão: A iniquidade observada entre grupos de rendimento parece refletir desigualdades noutras variáveis de não-necessidade. Há a questão dos resultados poderem ser afetados por sobreutilização no caso de consultas de especialidades hospitalares.Conclusão: Portugal progrediu favoravelmente em termos de equidade na utilização de consultas, mas subsistem desafios.

Acesso aos cuidados de saúde em Portugal no rescaldo da crise. Nem tudo é dinheiro? / Access to healthcare in Portugal in the wake of the crisis. Not everything is money? / Acceso a los cuidados de salud en Portugal después de la crisis. ¿No todo es dinero?

As necessidades de cuidados de saúde não satisfeitas têm sido usadas para avaliar o acesso a cuidados de saúde. Em cenários de recessão e restrições financeiras impostas às políticas públicas, é importante identificar que fatores, para além do rendimento, podem ser usados para mitigar as barreiras no acesso. Este é o objetivo deste artigo, para o caso português, durante o rescaldo da crise. Usaram-se 17.698 observações do 5º Inquérito Nacional de Saúde (2014). Analisaram-se as necessidades não satisfeitas (autorreportadas) para as consultas e tratamentos médicos, cuidados de saúde dentários e medicamentos prescritos. Recorreu-se ao modelo de seleção bivariado, acomodando o fato de as necessidades não satisfeitas apenas poderem ser observadas na subamostra de indivíduos que sentiram necessidade de cuidados de saúde. O risco de necessidades de cuidados de saúde não satisfeitas diminui para rendimentos e níveis de educação mais altos bem como no grupo dos idosos e homens. Beneficiar apenas do Serviço Nacional de Saúde aumenta o risco de necessidades não satisfeitas na saúde oral. A ausência de um círculo de pessoas próximas a quem pedir ajuda e a falta de confiança nos outros tornam mais prováveis as necessidades de cuidados de saúde não satisfeitas. Mais saúde diminui o risco de necessidades de cuidados não satisfeitas. Sendo o rendimento um importante preditor das necessidades não satisfeitas, encontrou-se impacto de outros fatores como sexo, idade e educação. Participar em grupos informais reduz a probabilidade de necessidades não satisfeitas. Aqueles com mais necessidades de cuidados de saúde acabam por sofrer um risco acrescido por essa via.

Unmet healthcare needs have been used to assess access to healthcare. In scenarios of recession and financial constraints on public policies, it is important to identify which factors besides income can be used to mitigate barriers to access. This was the focus of our study on Portugal's case in the wake of the crisis. We used 17,698 observations from the 5th National Health Survey (2014). We analyzed self-reported unmet needs for medical appointments and treatments, dental healthcare, and prescribed medications. We used a bivariate selection model, considering the fact that unmet needs could only be observed in the subsample of individuals that felt the need for healthcare. The risk of unmet needs for healthcare decreased in individuals with higher income and schooling levels and in the elderly and men. Exclusive coverage by the National Health Service increased the risk of unmet dental healthcare needs. The absence of a circle of close friends to whom one can ask for help and lack of trust in others increased the likelihood of unmet healthcare needs. Better health decreased the risk of unmet needs. While income is an important predictor of unmet needs, we found the impact of other factors such as gender, age, and education. Participation in informal groups reduced the likelihood of unmet needs. Individuals with more healthcare needs end up suffering additional risk.

Las necesidades de cuidados de salud sin satisfacer se han usado para evaluar el acceso a los cuidados de salud. En escenarios de recesión y restricciones financieras, impuestas a las políticas públicas, es importante identificar qué factores, más allá del rendimiento, pueden ser usados para mitigar las barreras en el acceso. Este es nuestro objetivo para el caso portugués tras la crisis. Se realizaron 17.698 observaciones de la 5ª Encuesta Nacional de Salud (2014). Analizamos las necesidades no satisfechas (auto-informadas) en consultas y tratamientos médicos, cuidados dentales de salud y medicamentos prescritos. Recurrimos al modelo de selección bivariado, ajustando el hecho de que las necesidades no satisfechas solamente podrían ser observadas en la submuestra de individuos que sintieron la necesidad de cuidados de salud. El riesgo de necesidades de cuidados de salud no satisfechas disminuye en el caso de las rentas y niveles de educación más altos, así como en el grupo de los ancianos y hombres. Beneficiar solamente el Servicio Nacional de Salud aumenta el riesgo de necesidades no satisfechas en la salud oral. La ausencia de un círculo de personas cercanas a quién pedir ayuda y la falta de confianza en los otros hacen más probables las necesidades de cuidados de salud no satisfechos. Más salud disminuye el riesgo de necesidades de cuidados no satisfechos. Siendo el rendimiento un importante predictor de las necesidades no satisfechas, encontramos impacto de otros factores como sexo, edad y educación. Participar en grupos informales reduce la probabilidad de necesidades no satisfechas. Aquellos con más necesidades de cuidados de salud acaban por sufrir un riesgo más grande por esta vía.

Unmet needs across Europe: Disclosing knowledge beyond the ordinary measure.

Unmet healthcare needs (or foregone healthcare) is a widely used intermediate indicator to evaluate healthcare systems attainment since it relates to health outcomes, financial risk protection, improved efficiency and responsiveness to the individuals' legitimate expectations. This paper discusses the ordinary measure of this indicator used so far, prevalence of unmet needs in the whole population, based on the level of healthcare needs among the population. The prevalence of needs and the prevalence of unmet needs among those in need are key aspects that have not yet been fully explored when it comes to foregone healthcare. We break down the ordinary measure into prevalence of needs and prevalence of unmet needs among those in need based on data taken from the European Social Survey 2014. Afterwards, we analyse these different measures in a cross-country perspective. We also discuss the link between them and the implicit relative assessment of healthcare systems considering the whole population and the sub-group of the population aged 65 or more. Comparisons across countries show different attainment levels unveiling varying challenges across European countries, depending on the combination of levels of need and levels of unmet needs for those in need.

Evolution of catastrophic health expenditure in a high income country: incidence versus inequalities.

BACKGROUND: Catastrophic health expenditure (CHE) is well established as an indicator of financial protection on which there is extensive literature. However, most works analyse mainly low to middle income countries and do not address the different distributional dimensions of CHE. We argue that, besides incidence, the latter are crucial to better grasp the scope and nature of financial protection problems. Our objectives are therefore to analyse the evolution of CHE in a high income country, considering both its incidence and distribution. METHODS: Data are taken from the last three waves of the Portuguese Household Budget Survey conducted in 2005/2006, 2010/2011 and 2015/2016. To identify CHE, the approach adopted is capacity to pay/normative food spending, at the 40% threshold. To analyse distribution, concentration curves and indices (CI) are used and adjusted odds ratios are calculated. RESULTS: The incidence of CHE was 2.57, 1.79 and 0.46%, in 2005, 2010 and 2015, respectively. CHE became highly concentrated among the poorest (the respective CI evolved from - 0.390 in 2005 to - 0.758 in 2015) and among families with elderly people (the absolute CI evolved from 0.520 in 2005 to 0.740 in 2015). Absolute CI in geographical context also increased over time (0.354 in 2015, 0.019 in 2005). Medicines represented by far the largest share of catastrophic payments, although, in this case concentration decreased (the median share of medicines diminished from 93 to 43% over the period analysed). Contrarily, the weight of expenses incurred with consultation fees has been growing (even for General Practitioners, despite the NHS coverage of primary care). CONCLUSIONS: The incidence of CHE and inequality in its distribution might progress in the same direction or not, but most importantly policy makers should pay attention to the distributional dimensions of CHE as these might provide useful insight to target households at risk. Greater concentration of CHE can actually be regarded as an opportunity for policy making, because interventions to tackle CHE become more confined. Monitoring the distribution of payments across services can also contribute to early detection of emerging (and even, unexpected) drivers of catastrophic payments.

No unmet needs without needs! Assessing the role of social capital using data from European social survey 2014.

This paper examines the determinants of unmet healthcare needs in Europe. Special emphasis is put on the impact of social capital. Data come from the European Social Survey, 2014. Our study includes 32,868 respondents in 20 countries. Because unmet needs are observed only in those individuals who are exposed to, and recognise, the need of medical care, sample selection can be an issue. To address it, we analyse the data using the bivariate sample selection model. When there is no need, there is no assessment of access to healthcare. Accordingly, in this situation, our model assumes that unmet need is unobserved. The magnitude and statistical significance of the error correlation support our modelling strategy. A high proportion (18.4%) of individuals in need in Europe reported unmet needs. Informal connections seem to mitigate barriers to access as well as trust in other people and institutions, particularly in health services. Financial strain still is a strong predictor of unmet needs. Other vulnerable groups include informal carers, minorities and individuals feeling discriminated. Unmet needs might also arise due to persistent needs of healthcare as it seems to be the case of individuals with lower health status and chronic conditions. A result that merits further research concerns the positive impact of civic engagement on unmet needs.

Do drinking problems in the past affect current consumption?

Harmful use of alcohol ranks among the top five risk factors for disease, disability and death worldwide. However, not all individuals who consume alcohol throughout life are addicted and our premise is that addiction implies a chain of consumption that produces harmful effects. The objective of this study was to evaluate whether self-assessed past drinking problems - our measure of harmful alcohol consumption - affect the current alcohol consumption patterns. We expected that drinking problems in the past could have a positive effect on current alcohol consumption. Using Portuguese data from the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE), we applied an ordered probit model, given the ordered nature of the dependent variable. Our dependent variable measures the current consumption using categories listed in ascending order of alcohol intake frequency (from less than once a month to daily consumption). Our results suggest that harmful alcohol consumption in the past is an important determinant of current alcohol consumption. Self-assessed past drinking problems had a positive effect on the first five lower categories of current alcohol consumption frequency - less than once a month to up to six days a week. Therefore, to reduce non-communicable avoidable diseases related to the use of alcohol, policies should consider the individuals' decisions regarding alcohol consumption during their lifetime, and specific policies should focus on individuals with past drinking problems.

Do drinking problems in the past affect current consumption? / Problemas com bebida no passado coíbem consumo atual? / ¿Los problemas con la bebida en el pasado evitan su consumo actual?

Abstract: Harmful use of alcohol ranks among the top five risk factors for disease, disability and death worldwide. However, not all individuals who consume alcohol throughout life are addicted and our premise is that addiction implies a chain of consumption that produces harmful effects. The objective of this study was to evaluate whether self-assessed past drinking problems - our measure of harmful alcohol consumption - affect the current alcohol consumption patterns. We expected that drinking problems in the past could have a positive effect on current alcohol consumption. Using Portuguese data from the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE), we applied an ordered probit model, given the ordered nature of the dependent variable. Our dependent variable measures the current consumption using categories listed in ascending order of alcohol intake frequency (from less than once a month to daily consumption). Our results suggest that harmful alcohol consumption in the past is an important determinant of current alcohol consumption. Self-assessed past drinking problems had a positive effect on the first five lower categories of current alcohol consumption frequency - less than once a month to up to six days a week. Therefore, to reduce non-communicable avoidable diseases related to the use of alcohol, policies should consider the individuals' decisions regarding alcohol consumption during their lifetime, and specific policies should focus on individuals with past drinking problems.

Resumo: O uso prejudicial de álcool figura entre os cinco principais fatores de risco para doença, deficiência e óbito em todo o mundo. Contudo, nem todos os indivíduos que consomem álcool durante suas vidas são drogaditos e nossa premissa é que a drogadição pressupõe um fluxo de consumo que produz efeitos danosos. O objetivo deste artigo foi avaliar se problemas autoavaliados com bebida no passado - nossa medida de consumo danoso de álcool - afetam padrões atuais de consumo de álcool. Esperávamos que problemas no passado poderiam ter um efeito positivo sobre o consumo atual de álcool. Usando dados portugueses do Inquérito de Saúde, Envelhecimento e Aposentadoria na Europa (SHARE, em inglês), aplicamos um modelo ordered probit, dada a natureza ordinal da variável dependente. Nossa variável dependente mede o consumo atual usando categorias listadas em ordem ascendente de frequência de ingestão de álcool (de menos de uma vez por mês até consumo diário). Nossos resultados sugerem que o consumo danoso de álcool no passado é um determinante importante do consumo atual de álcool. Problemas autoavaliados com bebida no passado tiveram um efeito positivo nas primeiras cinco categorias mais baixas de frequência atual de consumo de álcool - menos de uma vez por mês até seis dias por semana. Portanto, para reduzir doenças não-transmissíveis preveníveis relacionadas ao consumo de álcool, as políticas públicas devem levar em consideração as decisões de indivíduos relacionadas ao seu consumo de álcool durante suas vidas, e políticas específicas devem ser dirigidas a indivíduos com problemas passados com bebida.

Resumen: El abuso de alcohol se sitúa entre los cinco factores con mayor riesgo alrededor del mundo para enfermedad, incapacidad y muerte. No obstante, no todas las personas que consumen alcohol a lo largo de su vida son adictas y nuestra premisa es que la adicción implica un consumo continuado que produce efectos dañinos. El objetivo de este trabajo fue evaluar si los problemas pasados con el alcohol autoevaluados -nuestra medida de consumo dañino- afecta a los estándares actuales de consumo de alcohol. Esperábamos que los problemas con el alcohol en el pasado pudieran tener un efecto positivo en el consumo actual. Utilizando los datos portugueses de la Encuesta para la Salud, Envejecimiento y Jubilación en Europa (SHARE), aplicamos un modelo ordered probit, proporcionado por la propia naturaleza de la variable dependiente. Nuestra variable dependiente mide el consumo actual, usando categorías listadas en orden ascendiente de frecuencia de consumo de alcohol (desde menos de una vez al mes al consumo diario). Nuestros resultados sugieren que un consumo dañino de alcohol en el pasado es un importante determinante del consumo de alcohol en la actualidad. Los problemas autoevaluados en el pasado con la bebida tuvieron un efecto positivo en las primeras cinco categorías más bajas de la frecuencia actual de consumo de alcohol -menos de una vez al mes hasta seis días a la semana. Por consiguiente, para reducir las enfermedades evitables no comunicables, relacionadas con el consumo de alcohol, se deberían considerar políticas que tuvieran en mente las decisiones individuales, en relación con el consumo de alcohol a lo largo de la vida, así como centrar las políticas específicas en personas con problemas con la bebida en el pasado.

EU health systems classification: a new proposal from EURO-HEALTHY.

BACKGROUND: In accordance the WHO framework of health system functions and by using the indicators collected within the EURO-HEALTHY project, this work aims to contribute to the discussion on the classification of EU health systems. METHODS: Three methods were used in this article: factor analysis, cluster analysis and descriptive analysis; data were mainly collected from the WHO and Eurostat databases. RESULTS: The most relevant result is the proposed classification of health systems into the following clusters: Austria-Germany, Central and Northern Countries, Southern Countries, Eastern Countries 'A' and Eastern Countries 'B'. CONCLUSIONS: The proposed typology contributes to the discussion about how to classify health systems; the typology of EU health systems allows comparisons of characteristics and health system performance across clusters and policy assessment and policy recommendation within each cluster.

Equity in health care financing in Portugal: findings from the Household Budget Survey 2010/2011.

Equity in health care financing is recognised as a main goal in health policy. It implies that payments should be linked to capacity to pay and that households should be protected against catastrophic health expenditure (CHE). The risk of CHE is inversely related to the share of out-of-pocket payments (OOP) in total health expenditure. In Portugal, OOP represented 26% of total health expenditure in 2010 [one of the highest among Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries]. This study aims to identify the proportion of households with CHE in Portugal and the household factors associated with this outcome. Additionally, progressivity indices are calculated for OOP and private health insurance. Data were taken from the Portuguese Household Budget Survey 2010/2011. The prevalence of CHE is 2.1%, which is high for a developed country with a universal National Health Service. The main factor associated with CHE is the presence of at least one elderly person in households (when the risk quadruples). Payments are particularly regressive for medicines. Regarding the results by regions, the Kakwani index for total OOP is larger (negative) for the Centre and lower, not significant, for the Azores. Payments for voluntary health insurance are progressive.

Underuse of generic medicines in Portugal: an empirical study on the perceptions and attitudes of patients and pharmacists.

OBJECTIVES: The objectives of this study were to identify: perceptions regarding underuse and characteristics of generic medicines; patients' attitudes towards drug substitution and pharmacists' attitudes towards substitution recommendation. METHODS: Two questionnaires were designed and interviewer-administered - one to patients and another to pharmacists. A binary variable 'correct understanding' was created and multiple logistic regression analysis was used to identify factors associated with experience and willingness to accept generic medicine substitution. Statistical analyses were performed by SPSS version 19.0. RESULTS: All of the 417 patients knew the term 'generic medicine'. Level of education, experience and discussion with doctor were significantly associated with correct understanding. 77.5% of respondents had consumed generic medicines and 88.7% (64.5%) were willing to accept drug substitution based on doctor's (pharmacist's) recommendation. Having at least one chronic condition, discussion with doctor and perception that generic drug substitution is cost-saving were significantly associated with experience. In addition to the last two, having correct understanding and having experience were significantly associated with willingness to accept generic drug substitution. 91.6% of pharmacists (95 respondents) said that drug substitution is recommended in their pharmacies. CONCLUSIONS: More information should be given to patients preferably by doctors and pharmacists. Prescription should be encouraged and experience promoted.